Competition and Antitrust Law

Introduction When we hear the term “export controls,” we may think it only applies to weapons and other highly sensitive technologies, but that is not the case. There are a multitude of circumstances—some unexpected—to which it is important to know that export controls apply. This is especially true if you are involved in research or in the design and development of seemingly innocuous solutions that are not necessarily tangible objects. Today, technological knowledge is shared not only through conventional partnerships between businesses or universities, but also through data sharing or access to databases that feed large language models. Artificial intelligence is, in itself, a means of sharing knowledge. Feeding such algorithms with sensitive data, or data that can become sensitive when combined, carries a risk of violating the applicable legal framework. Here are some key concepts. Overview of the federal export control framework The Export and Import Permits Act In Canada, the Export and Import Permits Act (the “EIPA”) establishes the primary framework governing the export of controlled goods and technologies. The EIPA gives the Minister of Foreign Affairs the power to issue, to any resident of Canada who applies for one, a permit authorizing the export or transfer of a wide range of items included on the Export Control List (the “ECL”) or destined for a country listed on the Area Control List. In other words, the EIPA regulates, and at times prohibits, the trade of critical goods and technologies outside Canada. The Export Control List To get the full picture of the ECL, we need to refer to the Guide to Canada's Export Control Listas published by the Department with its successive amendments, the most recent of which date back to May 2025 (the “Guide”). In summary, the Guide includes military goods and technologies, strategic goods and dual-use (civilian and military) goods and technology that are controlled in accordance with Canada’s commitments made in multilateral regimes, such as the Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, bilateral agreements, and certain unilateral controls implemented by Canada as part of its defence policy. The Guide also includes forest products, agricultural and food products, apparel goods and vehicles. Other laws that affect exports Also to take into account are the sanctions that Canada imposes under laws that affect exports, such as: the United Nations Act the Special Economic Measures Act the Justice for Victims of Corrupt Foreign Officials Act These sanctions against specific countries, organizations or persons include a number of measures, including restricting or prohibiting trade, financial transactions or other economic activities with Canada, or the freezing of property located in Canada.1 Finally, in order for an individual (or an organization) to transfer controlled goods outside Canada, they must register with the Controlled Goods Program (the “CGP”) to obtain an export permit, unless exempt. Key concepts Did you know? Certain goods and technologies are referred to as “dual-use” goods and technologies. This means that even though they were initially designed for civilian use or appear harmless, they may be subject to export controls if they can be used for military purposes or to produce military items. A “technology” is broadly defined to include technical data, technical assistance and information necessary for the development, production or use of an item listed on the ECL. Also included in this notion, albeit indirectly, are the technologies referred to in any of the regulations associated with the laws listed above, which make certain countries subject to specific technology transfer restrictions. A “transfer” in relation to a technology, means to dispose of it (e.g. sell it) or disclose its content in any manner from a place in Canada to a place outside Canada. This definition stems from legislative amendments to the EIPA, which expanded the scope of the law to include the mere transfer of intangible technologies by various means, thereby broadening the circumstances to which permits apply as regards transfers.2 Regarding trade relations with the United States, Canadian exporters may face additional restrictions and considerable challenges, particularly in situations where their employees or other stakeholders involved are foreign nationals.The International Traffic in Arms Regulations (“ITAR”) and the Export Administration Regulations(“EAR”) are two key sets of rules that govern exports from the United States.3 They protect both similar and distinct interests. While the ITAR aim to protect defence articles and defence services (including weapons and information), the EAR govern dual-use items.4 Both prevent exports5 in a broad sense, i.e., up to and including the transfer of information to so-called “foreign” persons, except with the permission of the authorities. It is thus quite possible that Canadian exporters will be required to comply with these American regulations, which, in addition to targeting territories, target the national origin of individuals. This is diametrically opposed to Canada’s export regime, which rather centres on prohibiting trade with a country or anyone located there. In this regard, note that Quebec’s Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms considers national origin to be a ground for discrimination. 6 A Quebec business can thus find itself struggling to balance its contractual obligations under a contract with an American company with the requirements of the Quebec Charter. Artificial intelligence: novel challenges The development of large language models in the field of artificial intelligence represents a new challenge from an export control standpoint, and a significant one at that. For example, if a large language model is trained using restricted data, a state subject to the aforementioned sanctions might attempt to use the large language model to indirectly obtain information to which it would not otherwise have had direct access. As a result, training a large language model on plans, technical specifications or textual descriptions of technologies covered by transfer restrictions (which can include knowledge transfers) can create a risk of non-compliance with the law. The same applies to accessing such data for retrieval-augmented generation, a widely used technique to expand and improve large language model responses. To limit the risk during research and development, a company that trains a large language models on such data or allows access to such data for retrieval-augmented generation will need to consider where the data will be hosted and processed. Similarly, once the artificial intelligence application is developed, it will be important to restrict access to it in a manner consistent with the law, both in terms of locating the servers on which the large language model will be installed and in terms of user access. Sanctions Any person or organization that contravenes any provision of the EIPA or its regulations commits an offence punishable by fine and/or imprisonment, as applicable. Also, failure to register with the CGPmay constitute an offence under federal laws that can lead to prosecution and substantial sanctions against the offender(s).7 Conclusion Canada’s export controls are quite complex, not only in how they are structured, but also in how they must be implemented. With the changing geopolitical and commercial landscape, it is advisable to periodically read the resources made available by the relevant authorities and put in place appropriate policies and measures, or to seek professional advice in this regard. Government of Canada, “Types of sanctions” (date modified: 2024-09-10): Types of sanctions Martha L. Harrison & Tonya Hughes, “Understanding Exports: A Primer on Canada’s Export Control Regime” (2010) 8(2) Canadian International Lawyer, 97 The ITAR and EAR are included in the Code of Federal Regulations (“CFR”). Austin D. Michel, “Hiring in the Export-Control Context: A Framework to Explain How Some Institutions of High Education Are Discriminating against Job Applicants” (2021) 106:4 Iowa L Review, 1993 The ITAR and EAR also provide for restrictions on re-exportation. See Maroine Bendaoud, “Quand la sécurité nationale américaine fait fléchir le principe de non-discrimination en droit canadien : le cas de l'International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR)” (2013) Les cahiers de droit, 54 (2–3), 549 Government of Canada, “Guideline on Controlled Goods Program registration” (date modified: 2025-05-08): Guideline on Controlled Goods Program registration – Canada.ca

In a strategic move to bolster domestic production of critical minerals, President Donald Trump has invoked the Defense Production Act (DPA). He signed an executive order aiming to reduce U.S. dependence on foreign sources, particularly China, which dominates the global rare earth minerals market. This market dominance poses economic and security risks for countries reliant on these materials for advanced technologies, such as the U.S. and Canada. The executive order leverages the DPA to provide financing, loans, and investment support for domestic processing of rare earth elements (REEs) and critical rare earth elements (CREEs). REEs are profoundly valuable and are essential in the manufacture of electronics (e.g., microchips, semiconductors, and essentially any product with a computer chip).  This initiative seeks to enhance national security by ensuring a stable supply of materials essential for technologies ranging from batteries to defense systems. Standard NdFeB magnets, without terbium (Tb) or dysprosium (Dy), cannot be used in high-temperature applications such as in electric vehicles (EV) critical components.  The production of high-value pre-magnetic REE alloys, requires the purchase of separated Tb and Dy oxides from China. Recent concerns about future supplies of REEs have now narrowed chiefly to the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). Essentially, all of the world's HREEs are currently sourced from the south China ion-adsorption clay deposits.  The ability of those deposits to maintain and increase production is uncertain, particularly in light of environmental degradation associated with some mining and extraction operations in the region. As the U.S. intensifies efforts to secure its mineral supply chains, Canada, rich in mineral resources, has an opportunity to strengthen its position as a key supplier. However, Canada must also navigate its own strategic interests, ensuring that domestic extraction and processing capabilities remain competitive. REE mineral deposits typically contain appreciable levels of radioactive elements such as thorium (Th) and uranium (U), making the extraction of REE values environmentally challenging.  Novel processes for the extraction and separation of REE values in high yield and purity, with an environmentally cleaner design and overcoming the technical and economic limitations of the existing commercial processes, are of commercial interest. Additionally, diversifying export markets beyond the U.S. could shield Canada from potential shifts in American policy while strengthening its role as a global player in the critical minerals industry. As the Trump administration’s directive underscores the strategic importance of CREEs and the necessity to develop resilient supply chains, we can expect more news in the upcoming months from the U.S. regarding its efforts to lessen its dependence on other countries in the mining industry. Stay tuned!

Nearly four years after the Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (the “CUSMA” or the “Agreement”) came into force, U.S. President-elect Donald Trump announced on November 25, 2024, that he would impose 25% tariffs on all products entering the U.S. from Canada and Mexico, starting on the first day of his presidency, that is, January 20, 2025. Mr. Trump added that the tariffs would remain in effect until Canada and Mexico strengthened their border policies, which he blames for the increase in illegal immigration and the trafficking of devastating drugs in the United States. As a reminder, under the current provisions of the CUSMA, most products made in Quebec and Canada can be sold on U.S. markets without tariffs applying. President Trump has repeated his intention to implement such customs tariffs on several occasions since his announcement at the end of November. However, no real measure has yet been taken to impose these customs tariffs. Still, should he choose to go ahead with his threat, there appears to be several legislative provisions on which his administration could rely to implement these tariffs. His administration could invoke the CUSMA’s essential security exception, which allows a party to the Agreement to apply any measure deemed necessary to protect its essential security interests, the national security exception in the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, which President Trump’s first administration used in 2018 to introduce tariffs on U.S. imports of certain steel and aluminum products, or the provisions of the National Emergencies Act. Needless to say, the announcement sent shockwaves through the political and business communities in Canada and Quebec what with the close commercial ties that the U.S. has with Canada, including with Quebec. In the first quarter of 2024 alone, Quebec’s merchandise exports to the U.S. reached CAN$21.2 billion, which accounts for nearly 74.6% of the province’s international merchandise exports and makes the U.S. Quebec’s main trading partner on the world stage. The imposition of 25% tariffs would therefore significantly affect Quebec businesses. It would make them less competitive on the U.S. market, on which they rely heavily to export their products. The measure could be particularly detrimental to the Canadian forestry industry, which is already severely affected by tariffs of nearly 15% on lumber. The U.S. economy would also be considerably affected by such protectionist tariffs. While in the short term, tariffs could benefit certain domestic manufacturers and producers, in the longer term, they are likely to harm the U.S. economy as a whole. Many U.S. manufacturers would face higher costs of inputs, and established supply chains would be disrupted, in particular in the automotive and steel industries. To continue to make profits, many U.S. companies could be forced to pass on the additional costs to their end consumers by raising the prices of their products, which would undoubtedly result in another wave of inflation. Worth mentioning also are the retaliatory measures that the Canadian government may want to implement in response to such tariffs, which could affect certain parts of the U.S. economy. Although the CUSMA provides for dispute resolution mechanisms, they are unlikely to lessen the impact of the measures that the Trump administration is considering in the short term, as a final decision under these mechanisms could take a long time to be issued. The new U.S. administration could use the announcement made on November 25 as leverage in future CUSMA renewal negotiations, the preparatory discussions for which are slated to begin next year, or in negotiations for a separate trade agreement between the U.S. and Canada that would exclude Mexico. Canadian businesses would do well to encourage their various trade associations to take steps to lobby both American decision-makers and their corporate customers in the U.S. and remind them of the harmful effects that the announced tariffs may have on American businesses. While we wait for a more detailed announcement with information concerning specific tariff exemptions in particular, we suggest that businesses choose their future trading partners with great care. In an increasingly protectionist global economic context, a strategy involving the diversification of trading partners is the best way for businesses to offset the risks associated with a particular country’s tariff policies. The Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement signed by Canada and the European Union in 2017, which our firm helped to negotiate, may prove to be an interesting solution in this respect. Our team of commercial law and tax professionals is available to help you find solutions to the issues arising from this announcement. With our expertise, we can assist you in your commercial negotiations and help you develop strategies to mitigate the impact that the announced tariff increase may have on your business.

Greenwashing is a form of marketing that misrepresents a product, service or practice as having positive environmental effects,1 thereby misleading consumers and preventing them from making an informed purchasing decision.2 Several initiatives have been launched around the world to counter this practice. In California, a law requires business entities to disclose information in support of environmental claims.3 In France, ads featuring environmental claims such as “carbon-neutral” and “net zero” must include a quick response (QR) code that links to the studies and data supporting such claims.4 Within the European Union, a proposal for a directive was published with a view to possibly banning generic terms like “environmentally friendly.”5 In South Korea, the Korea Fair Trade Commission proposed an amendment to its Guidelines for Review of Environment-Related Labeling and Advertising that would simplify the process of issuing fines to businesses engaged in greenwashing.6 The Parliament of Canada seemingly followed suit by tabling Bill C-597 on November 30, 2023, which introduces a provision into the Competition Act8aimed at improving the means to fight greenwashing. Amended on May 28, 2024, Bill C-59 finally received royal assent on June 20, 2024, date on which it partially came into force. Because the provision will apply to “any person,” all businesses will be subject to it, regardless of their size or legal form. Amendments to the Competition Act regarding environmental claims The Competition Act now allows9 the Commissioner of the Competition Bureau (the “Bureau”) to inquire into10 the conduct of a person who promotes 1) a product by making an environmental claim or warranty11 or 2) any business interest by making representations about the environmental benefits of a business or business activity. Claim concerning a product or service Insofar as a business or person is unable to demonstrate a product’s benefits for protecting the environment or mitigating the environmental and ecological effects of climate change, the Commissioner of Competition will be entitled to apply to a court for an order requiring such business or person to (i)cease promoting the product on the basis of a non-compliant environmental claim or warranty, (ii)publish a corrective notice and (iii)pay an administrative monetary penalty12 of up to, for a legal person, the greater of $10 million and three times the value of the benefit derived from the deceptive conduct, or, if that amount cannot be reasonably determined, 3% of the legal person’s annual worldwide gross revenue. The penalty for each subsequent offence could be as high as $15 million. A “product” within the meaning of the Competition Act may be an article (real or personal property of every description) or a service.13 This new provision expressly requires any person or business to base their environmental claims on “an adequate and proper test”.14 A “test” within the meaning of this Act consists in an analysis, verification or assessment intended to demonstrate the result or alleged effect of a product. It does not necessarily have to be a scientific method nor do the results need to meet a test of certainty, as the courts have generally interpreted the term “proper” to mean fit, apt, suitable or as required by the circumstances.15 With regard to misleading claims, the courts16 have clarified the nature of the criteria that must be considered to determine whether a particular test is “adequate and proper.” Thus, an adequate and proper test depends on the claim made as understood by the common person. The test must also meet the following criteria: It must be reflective of the risk or harm which the product is designed to prevent or assist in preventing. It must be done under controlled circumstances or in conditions which exclude external variables or take account in a measurable way for such variables. It must be conducted on more than one independent sample wherever possible (e.g., destruction testing may be an exception). The results need not be measured against a test of certainty, but must be reasonable given the nature of the harm at issue and establish that it is the product itself which causes the desired effect in a material manner. It must be performed regardless of the size of the seller’s organization or the anticipated volume of sales.17 Representations accompanying product that come from a person outside Canada are deemed to be made by the person who imports the product into Canada.18 General claims about a company’s activities While Bill C-59 was initially intended to cover only environmental statements, warranties or guarantees regarding products, the assented version of the bill provides that any representation made regarding the benefits of a business or business activity for protecting or restoring the environment or mitigating the environmental and ecological causes or effects of climate change are subject to a Bureau inquiry.19 As an example cited by the Bureau, a company’s claims about being “carbon neutral” or that it commits to becoming so within a certain number of years20 would constitute “representations of the benefits of a business or business activity in mitigating the causes of climate change.” The company making such claims must be able to demonstrate that they are based on “adequate and proper substantiation” obtained using an “internationally recognized methodology”.21 The Competition Act does not specify which internationally recognized methods may be used for this purpose. Should the substantiation the company uses be inadequate, improper or obtained using a method that is not recognized internationally, it will be subject to the same consequences as those mentioned in the previous section.22 Regardless of whether the claims concern a product or service or a business activity, the persons concerned are allowed to defend themselves under the Competition Act by establishing that they exercised due diligence.23 What impact will these amendments really have? Notwithstanding the proposed legislative amendment, the Competition Act already covers false or misleading representations with respect to green advertising.24 The current provisions already prohibit making representations to the public that are false or misleading in a material respect.25 In recent years, several complaints of greenwashing have been lodged with the Bureau on that basis, prompting it to open a number of investigations. Some have led to major settlements involving companies having made representations regarding their products.26/27/28/29 In all of these cases, the heavy burden of establishing that the business’s environmental claim was false or misleading fell on the Bureau. The proposed amendments to the Competition Act would change this by shifting the burden of proof onto businesses. The onus would therefore be on them to demonstrate that their product benefits the environment in some way or mitigates the environmental and ecological effects of climate change or that its claims are based on adequate and proper substantiation obtained using an internationally recognized method. These new legislative provisions now confirm what was already a general standard since 1999, and they ease the Bureau’s burden of proof. In addition to the Competition Act, other laws applicable in Quebec provide a general framework for greenwashing, such as the Consumer Protection Act.30Under this Act, no merchant, manufacturer or advertiser may, by any means whatsoever, make false or misleading claims to a consumer, which implicitly includes greenwashing.31 To determine whether a representation constitutes a prohibited practice, the general impression it gives, and, as the case may be, the literal meaning of the terms used therein must be taken into account. In particular, it is prohibited to falsely ascribe particular advantages to a product or service, or to claim that a product has a particular feature or ascribe certain characteristics of performance to it.33 Offences are subject to criminal34 and civil35 penalties. Private remedies Another new measure to combat greenwashing in the Competition Act is the possibility for any person (individual, organization, competitor, etc.) to apply directly to the Competition Tribunal for an order against a business making environmental claims or representations about a product, service or activities without adequate substantiation.36 In the first version of Bill C-59, only the Commissioner of Competition could institute such proceedings before the Tribunal.37 However, the Competition Tribunal must first give leave to make such an application.38 The Tribunal’s power to give leave is largely discretionary, meaning that the Tribunal may grant it if it deems that it is in the public interest to do so.39 This new measure will come into force in one year on June 20, 2025.40 Best practices It is crucial for a company to adopt and display a realistic image of its environmental impact based on credible data and facts. Making sure that claims are legally compliant is not all that’s at stake. A business’s failure to do the above is likely to seriously harm not only its reputation, but also its relationship with its stakeholders. Thus, before claiming to be “green,” businesses must consider the following questions. Are the real motivations behind the business’s sustainability commitments clear, legitimate and convincing? Is sustainable development an integral part of the business strategy? Is it applied when addressing key business issues and taking new actions? Does the company have a sustainable development policy that is credible and based on relevant issues? Was it developed collaboratively with and approved by its Board of Directors? Has the company set specific, clear, measurable and achievable objectives and targets? Considerations for public companies As concerns public companies subject to continuous disclosure obligations under Canadian securities legislation (“reporting issuers”), these considerations are set against a backdrop of increasing pressure from investors, including institutional investors, and others for greater transparency on climate-related issues. Although climate-related disclosure requirements for Canadian reporting issuers are still relatively limited, many issuers choose to voluntarily disclose such information, for example in sustainability reports. Reporting issuers must pay particular attention to their communications, which could constitute greenwashing within the meaning of the Competition Act and give rise to the penalties and other consequences mentioned above. This is another risk to add to reporting issuers’ liability in the secondary market for misrepresentation and failure to make disclosures within prescribed time limits. As far as climate issues are concerned, the risk arises in particular from overestimating or inadequately disclosing how activities contribute to protecting the environment or how they mitigate the environmental and ecological effects of climate change. The current move towards standardized methodologies and frameworks and the forthcoming adoption of binding rules on climate-related disclosures should help to limit greenwashing in this context. In the meantime, reporting issuers can reduce the risk of greenwashing by following a well-established international methodology and by including disclaimers for forward-looking statements adapted to the risks and uncertainties inherent to the climate-related information they provide. Conclusion The new provisions of the Competition Act are already having an impact. As a precaution, some companies have removed ads, promotional documents and websites containing claims that certain activities were undertaken specifically to mitigate the causes of climate change. Parliament’s message could not be clearer: Shifting the burden of proof onto businesses means closing the door on an era when products, services and business activities could be marketed as green in the absence of tangible evidence. Definition of the Autorité des marchés financiers: 8 questions and answers about carbon credits and related concepts | AMF (lautorite.qc.ca). Definition of the Competition Bureau: Environmental claims and greenwashing (canada.ca). Assembly Bill No. 1305: Voluntary carbon market disclosures, California, 2023. Read it here: Bill Text – AB-1305 Voluntary carbon market disclosures. Décret no 2022-539 du 13 avril 2022 relatif à la compensation carbone et aux allégations de neutralité carbone dans la publicité, Journal officiel de la République française, 2022. Read it here: Légifrance – Publications officielles – Journal officiel – JORF n° 0088 du 14/04/2022 (legifrance.gouv.fr). Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directives 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU as regards empowering consumers for the green transition through better protection against unfair practices and better information, Council of the European Union, Brussels, 2022. Read it here: pdf(europa.eu). Read it here: KFTC Proposes Amendment to Review Guidelines Regarding Greenwashing – Kim & Chang (kimchang.com). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session. Read it here: Government Bill (House of Commons) C-59 (44-1) – First Reading – Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023 – Parliament of Canada. The Bill is currently at second reading in the House of Commons. R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34. These provisions came into force on June 20, 2024. This power to make inquiry would be available, as the Competition Act already provides, upon receipt of a complaint signed by six persons who are not less than 18 years of age or in any situation where the Commissioner has reason to believe that a person has contravened section 74.01 of the Competition Act (see R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, ss. 9 and 10). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, section 236. Read it here: Government Bill (House of Commons) C-59 (44-1) – First Reading – Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023 – Parliament of Canada; section 236 of this Act adds paragraphs b.1 and b.2 to subsection 74.01(1) of the Competition Act. Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, article 74.1. Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, subsection 2(1). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, para. 236(1). Read it here: Government Bill (House of Commons) C-59 (44-1) – First Reading – Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023 – Parliament of Canada The Commissioner of Competition v. Imperial Brush Co. Ltd. and Kel Kem Ltd. (c.o.b. as Imperial Manufacturing Group), 2008 CACT 2, paras. 122 et seq. Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, section 74.09: “courts” means the Competition Tribunal, the Federal Court and the superior court of a province. The Commissioner of Competition v. Imperial Brush Co. Ltd. and Kel Kem Ltd. (c.o.b. as Imperial Manufacturing Group), 2008 CACT 2. Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, subsections 74.03(1) and (2). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, section 236. Read it here: Government Bill (House of Commons) C-59 (44-1) – First Reading – Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023 – Parliament of Canada; paragraph b.2 of section 74.01 of the Competition Act was added by amendment adopted on May 28, 2024. Letter from Anthony Durocher and Bradley Callaghan to the Honourable Pamela Wallin dated May 31, 2024. Read it here: BANC_Follow-up_CompetitionBureau_e.pdf (sencanada.ca). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, section 236. Read it here: Government Bill (House of Commons) C-59 (44-1) – First Reading – Fall Economic Statement Implementation Act, 2023 – Parliament of Canada. Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, article 74.1. Competition Act, subsection 74.1(3). Louis-Philippe Lampron, “L’encadrement juridique de la publicité écologique fausse ou trompeuse au Canada : une nécessité pour la réalisation du potentiel de la consommation écologique?” Revue de Droit de l’Université de Sherbrooke, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2005, p. 474. Read it here: A:\lampron.wpd (usherbrooke.ca). Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, paragraph 74.01(1)(a). Amanda Stephenson, Des groupes écologistes misent sur la Loi sur la concurrence(Environmental groups banking on the Competition Act), October 1, 2023, La Presse. Read it here: Des groupes écologistes misent sur la Loi sur la concurrence | La Presse. Brenna Owen, Un groupe accuse Lululemon d’« écoblanchiment » et demande une enquête (A group accuses Lululemon of “greenwashing” and calls for an investigation) February 13, 2024, La Presse. Read it here: Un groupe accuse Lululemon d’« écoblanchiment » et demande une enquête | La Presse. Martin Vallières, “Gare aux tromperies écologiques” (Beware of greenwashing), January 26, 2022, La Presse. Read it here: Écoblanchiment | Gare aux tromperies écologiques | La Presse; Keurig Canada to pay $3 million penalty to settle Competition Bureau’s concerns over coffee pod recycling claims – Canada.ca. The Commissioner of Competition v. Volkswagen Group Canada Inc. and Audi Canada Inc., 2018 Competition Tribunal 13. Consumer Protection Act, CQLR c. P-40.1, ss. 219, 220 and 221. Definition of the Competition Bureau: Environmental claims and greenwashing (canada.ca). Richard v. Time Inc., 2012 SCC 8, paras. 46 to 57. Consumer Protection Act, CQLR c. P-40.1, ss. 220 and 221. Consumer Protection Act, CQLR c P-40.1, ss. 277 to 279: Fines range from $600 to $15 000 in the case of a natural person and $2 000 to $100 000 in the case of a legal person. Offenders convicted a second time are liable to fines twice as high as those prescribed. Id. at ss. 271 to 276: Consumers may request that the contract be annulled, that the merchant’s obligation be performed or that their obligation be reduced, among other things. For civil matters only; An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, subsection 254(1). See subsection 103.1(1) of the Competition Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. C-34, effective before June 20, 2024. An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, subsection 254(1). Id. at 254(4). An Act to implement certain provisions of the fall economic statement tabled in Parliament on November 21, 2023 and certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 28, 2023, 44th Parliament, 1st Session, section 272.